Ethnic and racial identity and adolescent Well-Being The WritePass Journal

Ethnic and racial identity and adolescent Well-Being Bibliography Ethnic and racial identity and adolescent Well-Being Identity is often termed as a way of thinking and analysing about oneself, which usually takes place during adolescence. However some studies have suggested that the development of identity starts with the infant’s discovery of self, which as a result continues throughout childhood. This then eventually becomes the main centre of attention during adolescence, which clearly indicates the importance of understanding ones identity. Similarly understanding the ethnic part of identity is also regarded as a vital task of self discovery. As to why adolescence during the process of understanding their identity they also begin exploring their culture as well as their ethnic background. This article analyses the empirical and theoretical literatures that notifies us about the development of a positive understanding of oneself, mentally as well as ethnically. This article also explores how exploring the ethnic identity affects the mental health of the adolescent. This article also reviews this specific area of study by including research on both behavioural and the psychological outcomes of the adolescent in regards to discrimination, their mental health and the relationship in the midst of the ethnic identity. However the authors have specifically paid more attention to the ethnic identity and the academic achievement of the adolescent. Since these two factors often tend to have a link according to some studies. Similarly this is what Phinney and Kohatsu (1997) have suggested, as they argued that the achievement of a positive ethnic identity can eventually lead to a higher self esteem, better relations with friends and family but more importantly better grades. As during early adolescents some adolescents may often tend to deny any form of interest in their cultural or racial background but they quickly however become more and more aware of it due to conflicts that maybe occurring between their subculture and the dominant culture. As a result of these conflicts  Ã‚   some adolescents begin to develop some form of understanding of their heritage and background. This new knowledge that the adolescent has gained as result can encourage a sense of pride and acknowledgment of their ethnic bac kground. An increase number of research has suggested that adolescents of colour, ethnic identity in actual fact plays a major role in healthy changes that occur in their lives. Rotheran and Phinney (1998) have similarly suggested that ethnic and racial attitudes among the majority of children seem to have come together by about the age of 10 years. According to Rotheran and Phinney (1998) this outlines how important it is to examine and analyse the role that ethnic identity plays in the development of early adolescents. Other research have found that among minorities, at about only one and a half have not explored their ethnicity, about one quarter have been involved in exploring it and finally about one quarter have explored it and were committed to an ethnic identity. Phinney (1992) analysed that the procedure of developing the identity were alike across the three minority groups that the research was based on however particular issues that the each group were facing were very different. As Phinney and Kohatsu (1997) also gathered that unlike most Caucasian adolescents, the minority adolescents feel that they are required to make the decision of what extent their racial or cultural background will be part of their identity. As painful issues regarding ways in which their subculture is identified in society can lead to racism or inequality. This very common during early adolescence where minority adolescents tend to show any interest in their racial or cultural background. Similarly for example a headscarf; this item is often seen as religious as well as a cultural garment where the individual may feel they need to adjust it in order to avoid isolation or discrimination. Instead they may wear a more acceptable head garment or clothing in order to fit in with everyone else. Society is becoming more multicultural and multiethnic and being part of an ethnic group has become an important part of personal identity for most adolescents. During this specific phase or stage in life the adolescents often faces physical and mental adjustments. Arguably this particular stage in life is often associated with substantial number of changes in one’s self. Erikson (1968) and Blos (1962, 1979) both suggested that adolescence is regarded as a major life stage in terms of the formation ones identity as well as the development of the social perspective of life. Erikson (1968) and Blos (1962, 1979) argued that in order for the adolescent to understand the social aspect of their identity they must receive community acceptance for their behaviour.   Erikson (1968) in particular discussed the role intergenerational socialization plays in society. Intergenerational socialization suggests the social interaction between members of different generations.   Erikson (1968) further added that society therefore is required to provide a shared values and interests. This is to prevent the clashing of different values and beliefs but instead this allows those members of different generations to have shared ideas on what norms, values and beliefs are. According to Rotheran and Phinney (1987), they defined ethnic identity as one’s sense of belonging to particular ethnic group. Rotheran and Phinney (1987) also added that becoming a member of a specific ethnic group can somewhat determine the perceptions, thoughts, feelings and attitudes of certain issues regarding society. Rosenthal and Feldman (1992) suggested that because the family equips the child with their first experience as members of a specific ethnic group, it is therefore evident that parent’s have some form of involvement in the adolescents understanding of ethnic identity. Similarly Rosenthal and Feldman (1992) argued that those adolescents, who are confronted with conflicts with their own ethnic identity, may have been facilitated from the parent’s difficulties with the process of accepting their own ethnic identity. With the increased ethnic diversity in society, adolescents as a result are now interacting across ethnic and racial lines within their schools and communities that are a making the differences amongst ethnicity more apparent. As one is more likely to identify how different another’s ethnic identity is. According to Maldonado (1975) ethnic self-identity is a term used to define the combination of race, self image and self concept. It is when one fully recognizes their ethnicity instead of the self image that is based on the views and prejudices of the larger society towards a specific ethnic group. Maldonado (1975) argued that ethnic identity forms from within rather than the stereotypical images society imposes on ethnic identities. However Maldonado (1975) did state that it is important to mention that the stereotypes that are formed by the large society on certain ethnic groups can be a positive addition to the adolescent’s sense of pride or shame regarding their own ethnicity. Maldonado (1975) also insisted that this stereotype formed by the larger society can be the basis for the adolescent recognizing why they are faced with identity conflicts. A number of researchers have modelled what the process of ethnic development includes. Many of these models of ethnic identity and racial identity developments have been based on the work of Erik Erikson (1968). According to Erikson (1968) during the fifth stage of his model, the adolescent’s identity development becomes the primary developmental task in others words the most important part of their development. During this specific time, Erikson (1968) argued that adolescent starts the process of self discovery in many aspects of their life regarding their future, their career, their religious and cultural identity but also their racial and ethnic identity. Whereas Marcia (1980) argued that one views their identity as a structure of beliefs or past experiences regarding their self.   According to Marcia (1980) the better developed the structure of the individual’s identity is, the more able they are in identifying their own strengths and weakness. However the less developed the structure of their identity is, the more confused the individual may seem about their own individuality from others in which instead they may have to rely on outer sources to assess themselves. Furthermore Marcia (1980) regarded identity as a dynamic, not a motionless psychological structure. The way the adolescent’s identity is arranged sets the stage for changes that will continue to occur throughout the adult years until one is content with their identity. Many researchers have disagreed on the use of the terms ethnicity and race. As Marshall (2002) stated that both ethnicity and race are related to one another. However Marshall (2002) argued that ethnicity and race extends further than what is visible amongst specific groups, as this also includes the social history that these groups of individuals have experienced themselves which is different to other groups. This is because for example Afro- American groups are also known for their social history, as most of their ancestors have been part of the slavery this is what is recognisable within their racial or ethnic group other than their skin colour. Some researchers simply refer ethnic identity as a shared view of the world, language, behaviour which can also be associated with the cultural and religious background.   Alba and Waters (1990) analysed that ethnicity is regarded for some as an important factor of identity, in particular those who are from ethnic groups of colour in comparison to those who are from European/ White American backgrounds. Bernal and Knight (1993) also viewed ethnic identity as way of referring to one’s ethnic group membership. Bernal and Knight (1993) observed that ethnic identity is an essential aspect to the way an adolescent views themselves.   In addition to this Bernal and Knight (1993) argued that the ethnic identity of the adolescent is also associated with the feeling of belonging somewhere. Although there is a clear link between ethnic identity and group membership, Cross (1991) examined ethnic identity as not being a categorical variable. However Cross (1991) suggested that ethnic identity is rather a complex, multidimensional construct that is different dependent on what group the adolescent is part of. Races and ethnicity often play significant roles in minority group members self concept since these terms interact with the way society views them as well as the privileges that comes with it.   According to Wakefield and Hudley (2005) those adolescents with unexamined ethnic identities have not explored their ethnic membership group and therefore have very little understanding of issues regarding ethnicity and identity. Although at some point many adolescents may move into finding and searching for their ethnic identity. Contrary to Wakefield and Hudley (2005), some research has shown some disagreement as to what contributes to the developmental progression that occurs during adolescences in regards to ethnic identity. As some argue that when an adolescent has encountered some form of racial or discriminative abuse, this shifts gradually from unexamined ethnic identity to searching for their ethnic identity. However other research suggests that adolescents who live in multicultural societies happen to mature socially and cognitively because they are becoming more aware of their ethnic backgrounds where they then form some kind of desire or interest of understanding it better. Guanipa-Ho and Talley (1991) have both also suggested that ethnic identity is a fundamental component of how an individual functions psychologically.   Since one’s ethnic identity and self identity has proven to be highly influential to their behaviour which is also directly linked to their personality as well as their mental health. Moreover those adolescents who come from ethnic minority backgrounds must develop a positive as well ethnic and racial identity, this is so that they are able to protect and defend themselves against any racial, prejudice and discriminative abuse that still remains in society today. This for example the Black Americans often are viewed by the rest of America as low achievers in schools or involved with crime for instance. However Phinney (1992) analysed that belonging to a certain ethnic minority group doesn’t necessarily predict how high or low one’s self esteem is, whereas it is that sense of belonging that contributes to one’s self esteem. To conclude with, all these different findings agree that a positive and strong ethnic identity contributes to a good mental healthy which also encourages academic achievement.   An increasing number of studies have all suggested that the ethnic identity process determines how well the adolescent does academically but it can also trigger a number of negative factors which includes having low self esteem, getting involved with crime or drugs etc. Overall this article clearly outlines why it is essential that schools promote and encourage same race as well as cross race peer relationships. This is important as adolescents today live in a very diverse and multicultural society so it is important that they are not only surrounded with those people who are from similar as well as different ethnic, in order to prevent discrimination and racism. Bibliography Erikson, E. (1968) ‘Identity: youth and crisis, New York: New York Times company. Phinney, J. (1992) ‘The multi-group Ethnic Identity Measure: A new scale for use with adolescents and you adults from diverse groups’, Journal of adolescent Research, 7, (1), 156-176 Wakefield, W.D Hudley, C. (2005) ‘African American male adolescents’ preferences in responding to racial discrimination: Effects of ethnic identity and situational influences’, Adolescence, 40 (1) 237-256 Phinney, J. Kohatsu, E.L.   (1997) ‘Ethnic and Racial identity development and Mental health, in Schulenberg, J Maggs, J Hurrelmann, K. (ed.) Health risks and Developmental Transitions during Adolescence, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.